# Index of Fallacies - Last update: `2026-08-22`. Links marked with 'MD' lead to the Markdown versions of the files. Choose this format if you can parse Markdown code. ## Abstraction Treating an abstract concept as if it were something concrete, have human-like properties, or is identical to what it merely represents. | Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail | | ------- | ------------------- | ------ | | **Hypostatization** | An abstract noun (*the market*, *society*, *history*…) is the grammatical subject of a verb implying will, action, or blame; or an argument presupposes interests/properties independent of its members – beyond conventional shorthand (e.g., 'the company announced' → acceptable; 'the market punished investors' → flag) | [MD](abstraction/hypostatization.md) / [HTML](abstraction/hypostatization) | | **Anthropomorphisation** | Specifically *human* traits (emotion, intention, character) attributed to a non-human or abstract entity. | [MD](abstraction/anthropomorphisation.md) / [HTML](abstraction/anthropomorphisation) | | **Pathetic fallacy** | Human emotions attributed to inanimate objects, nature, or abstract systems ('the market fears', 'nature abhors') as if factual (specialized form of Anthropomorphisation). | [MD](abstraction/pathetic_fallacy.md) / [HTML](abstraction/pathetic_fallacy) | | **Objectification** | A *person* – not a concept – is treated as a thing, tool, or mere function ('resources', dehumanizing language), or assumed in reasoning to behave like predictable, passive objects. | [MD](abstraction/objectification.md) / [HTML](abstraction/objectification) | | **Ontological fallacy** | Existence inferred merely from a *word* for it, its *definition*, or its *conceivability*. | [MD](abstraction/ontological_fallacy.md) / [HTML](abstraction/ontological_fallacy) | | **Semiotic fallacy** | A *symbol, sign, model or metric* is conflated with the *thing it stands for*. | [MD](abstraction/semiotic_fallacy.md) / [HTML](abstraction/semiotic_fallacy) | | **Procrustean fallacy** | *Reality* (data, processes, objects) is actively manipulated or forced to fit a pre-existing *model*, framework, or theory – rather than adapting the model to reality. | [MD](abstraction/procrustean.md) / [HTML](abstraction/procrustean) | ## Ambiguity Confusion can arise if a word, phrase or position has more than one meaning and this is not made clear. | Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail | | ------- | ------------------- | ------ | | **Etymological fallacy** | A word’s *original or etymological* meaning is treated as authoritative for its current use – or its *modern* meaning is projected back onto older usage – even though the term’s meaning has shifted over time. | [MD](ambiguity/etymological_fallacy.md) / [HTML](ambiguity/etymological_fallacy) | | **Motte-and-bailey fallacy** | A *strong* and a *weak* version of a position are conflated under one term, and arguments are moved between them as if they were the same claim – e.g., retreating from an attacked strong claim to a defensible weak one without acknowledging the switch. | [MD](ambiguity/motte-and-bailey.md) / [HTML](ambiguity/motte-and-bailey) | | **Generic generalization** | An unquantified *generic* statement (“Xs are Y”) is used in an argument as if it were a *universal* claim about every member of the class – or a universal claim is silently weakened to dodge counterexamples. | [MD](ambiguity/syntactic/generic_generalization.md) / [HTML](ambiguity/syntactic/generic_generalization) | | **Intensional fallacy** | A *term* is swapped for another *synonym* referring to the same object, even though the two terms carry different *associated meanings or modes of reference* (e.g., “morning star” vs. “evening star”). | [MD](ambiguity/intensional_fallacy.md) / [HTML](ambiguity/intensional_fallacy) | ## Generalization #TODO: Short description here | Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail | | ------- | -------------------- | ------ | | **Accident fallacy** | A *general rule* (law, principle, norm) applied rigidly to a *specific case* where special circumstances would warrant an exception. | [MD](generalization/accident_fallacy.md) / [HTML](generalization/accident_fallacy) | | **Hasty generalization** | A *broad or universal rule* inferred from too few (or unrepresentative) instances of a class. | [MD](generalization/hasty.md) / [HTML](generalization/hasty) | | **Mereological fallacy** | A property of a *system* (body, organisation, ecosystem…) attributed solely to one *component* – or component properties assumed to carry over unchanged to the *system level*, ignoring emergent interactions. | [MD](generalization/mereological_fallacy.md) / [HTML](generalization/mereological_fallacy) | | **Naturalistic fallacy** | A prescriptive conclusion (*what ought to be*) inferred directly from a descriptive premise (*what is*), or vice versa – without independent justification for the normative leap. | [MD](generalization/naturalistic_fallacy.md) / [HTML](generalization/naturalistic_fallacy) | ## Relevance #TODO: Short description here | Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail | | ------- | -------------------- | ------ | | **Fallacy-fallacy** | An *invalid or refuted argument* for a claim is used as evidence that the *claim itself is false* (conflating bad reasoning with a false conclusion). | [MD](relevance/fallacy-fallacy.md) / [HTML](relevance/fallacy-fallacy) | | **Appeal to authority** | A claim is supported or rejected *solely* based on the status/expertise of the source (person, institution, "science"), rather than the evidence itself – especially when the source lacks relevant expertise, experts disagree, or the argument ignores counter-evidence. | [MD](relevance/authority/index.md) / [HTML](relevance/authority/index) | | **Appeal to a false authority** | An argument relies on an *invalid* authority: someone with no relevant expertise in that specific field, an anonymous/unverifiable source ("experts say"), or a fabricated/misquoted statement from a famous person. | [MD](relevance/authority/false_authority/index.md) / [HTML](relevance/authority/false_authority/index) | | **Appeal to tradition** | A practice or belief defended primarily because it is *old, customary, or "the way things have always been done"* – duration used as proof of correctness. | [MD](relevance/authority/false_authority/appeal_to_tradition.md) / [HTML](relevance/authority/false_authority/appeal_to_tradition) | | **Bandwagon fallacy** | A position supported or rejected primarily because *many people* hold it, do it, or find it popular – majority size used as evidence of truth. | [MD](relevance/authority/false_authority/bandwagon_fallacy.md) / [HTML](relevance/authority/false_authority/bandwagon_fallacy) | | **Honour by association** | Credibility or acceptance granted *solely* through positive association with a respected person, brand, or institution – no independent evaluation of the thing itself. | [MD](relevance/authority/false_authority/honour_by_association.md) / [HTML](relevance/authority/false_authority/honour_by_association) | | **False analogy** | A property of one thing is transferred to another based on their *similarity in other respects*, without establishing that this specific property follows from those shared features. | [MD](relevance/false_analogy.md) / [HTML](relevance/false_analogy) | #TODO: More to come. ## Knowledge #TODO: Short description here | Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail | | ------- | -------------------- | ------ | #TODO: More to come.