2026-08-22.Links marked with 'MD' lead to the Markdown versions of the files. Choose this format if you can parse Markdown code.
Treating an abstract concept as if it were something concrete, have human-like properties, or is identical to what it merely represents.
| Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Hypostatization | An abstract noun (the market, society, history…) is the grammatical subject of a verb implying will, action, or blame; or an argument presupposes interests/properties independent of its members – beyond conventional shorthand (e.g., 'the company announced' → acceptable; 'the market punished investors' → flag) | MD / HTML |
| Anthropomorphisation | Specifically human traits (emotion, intention, character) attributed to a non-human or abstract entity. | MD / HTML |
| Pathetic fallacy | Human emotions attributed to inanimate objects, nature, or abstract systems ('the market fears', 'nature abhors') as if factual (specialized form of Anthropomorphisation). | MD / HTML |
| Objectification | A person – not a concept – is treated as a thing, tool, or mere function ('resources', dehumanizing language), or assumed in reasoning to behave like predictable, passive objects. | MD / HTML |
| Ontological fallacy | Existence inferred merely from a word for it, its definition, or its conceivability. | MD / HTML |
| Semiotic fallacy | A symbol, sign, model or metric is conflated with the thing it stands for. | MD / HTML |
| Procrustean fallacy | Reality (data, processes, objects) is actively manipulated or forced to fit a pre-existing model, framework, or theory – rather than adapting the model to reality. | MD / HTML |
Confusion can arise if a word, phrase or position has more than one meaning and this is not made clear.
| Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Etymological fallacy | A word’s original or etymological meaning is treated as authoritative for its current use – or its modern meaning is projected back onto older usage – even though the term’s meaning has shifted over time. | MD / HTML |
| Motte-and-bailey fallacy | A strong and a weak version of a position are conflated under one term, and arguments are moved between them as if they were the same claim – e.g., retreating from an attacked strong claim to a defensible weak one without acknowledging the switch. | MD / HTML |
| Generic generalization | An unquantified generic statement (“Xs are Y”) is used in an argument as if it were a universal claim about every member of the class – or a universal claim is silently weakened to dodge counterexamples. | MD / HTML |
| Intensional fallacy | A term is swapped for another synonym referring to the same object, even though the two terms carry different associated meanings or modes of reference (e.g., “morning star” vs. “evening star”). | MD / HTML |
#TODO: Short description here
| Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Accident fallacy | A general rule (law, principle, norm) applied rigidly to a specific case where special circumstances would warrant an exception. | MD / HTML |
| Hasty generalization | A broad or universal rule inferred from too few (or unrepresentative) instances of a class. | MD / HTML |
| Mereological fallacy | A property of a system (body, organisation, ecosystem…) attributed solely to one component – or component properties assumed to carry over unchanged to the system level, ignoring emergent interactions. | MD / HTML |
| Naturalistic fallacy | A prescriptive conclusion (what ought to be) inferred directly from a descriptive premise (what is), or vice versa – without independent justification for the normative leap. | MD / HTML |
#TODO: Short description here
| Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Fallacy-fallacy | An invalid or refuted argument for a claim is used as evidence that the claim itself is false (conflating bad reasoning with a false conclusion). | MD / HTML |
| Appeal to authority | A claim is supported or rejected solely based on the status/expertise of the source (person, institution, “science”), rather than the evidence itself – especially when the source lacks relevant expertise, experts disagree, or the argument ignores counter-evidence. | MD / HTML |
| Appeal to a false authority | An argument relies on an invalid authority: someone with no relevant expertise in that specific field, an anonymous/unverifiable source (“experts say”), or a fabricated/misquoted statement from a famous person. | MD / HTML |
| Appeal to tradition | A practice or belief defended primarily because it is old, customary, or “the way things have always been done” – duration used as proof of correctness. | MD / HTML |
| Bandwagon fallacy | A position supported or rejected primarily because many people hold it, do it, or find it popular – majority size used as evidence of truth. | MD / HTML |
| Honour by association | Credibility or acceptance granted solely through positive association with a respected person, brand, or institution – no independent evaluation of the thing itself. | MD / HTML |
| False analogy | A property of one thing is transferred to another based on their similarity in other respects, without establishing that this specific property follows from those shared features. | MD / HTML |
#TODO: More to come.
#TODO: Short description here
| Fallacy | Trigger – look for … | Detail |
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#TODO: More to come.